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Increment and Decrement Operators

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C
provides two unusual operators for incrementing and decrementing variables. The
increment operator ++
adds 1 to its operand, while the decrement operator -- subtracts 1. We have frequently used ++ to increment variables, as in  </div>
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   if (c == '\n') </div>
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       ++nl; </div>
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The
unusual aspect is that ++
and -- may be used either as prefix
operators (before the variable, as in ++n), or postfix operators (after the variable: n++). In both cases, the effect is to
increment n. But the expression ++n increments n before
its value is used, while n++
increments n after
its value has been used. This means that in a context where the value is being
used, not just the effect, ++n and n++ are different. If n is 5, then  </div>
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    x = n++; </div>
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sets
x to 5, but  </div>
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    x = ++n; </div>
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sets x to 6. In both cases, n becomes 6. The increment and
decrement operators can only be applied to variables; an expression like (i+j)++ is illegal.  </div>
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In a context
where no value is wanted, just the incrementing effect, as in  </div>
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    if (c == '\n')        nl++; </div>
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prefix
and postfix are the same. But there are situations where one or the other is
specifically called for. For instance, consider the function squeeze(s,c), which removes all occurrences of the
character c from the string s. 
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   /* squeeze: 
delete all c from s */    void
squeeze(char s[], int c) </div>
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   { </div>
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      int i, j; </div>
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      for (i = j = 0; s[i] != '\0'; i++)           if (s[i] != c)               s[j++] = s[i];       s[j] = '\0'; </div>
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   } </div>
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Each
time a non-c occurs, it is copied into the current
j position, and only then is j incremented to be ready for the next
character. This is exactly equivalent to 
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    if (s[i] != c) {        s[j] = s[i];        j++;   
} </div>
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Another
example of a similar construction comes from the getline function that we wrote in <a href="http://arya2014.blogspot.com/2014/04/introdusingc-tutorial.html">A
Tutorial Introduction</a>,
where we can replace  </div>
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   if (c == '\n') {        s[i] = c; </div>
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       ++i;   
} by the more
compact  </div>
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    if (c == '\n')       s[i++] = c; </div>
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As a
third example, consider the standard function strcat(s,t), which concatenates the string t to the end of string s. strcat assumes that there is enough space in
s to hold the combination. As we have
written it, strcat returns no value; the standard library
version returns a pointer to the resulting string.  </div>
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   /* strcat: 
concatenate t to end of s; s must be big enough */    void strcat(char s[], char t[]) </div>
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   { </div>
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       int i, j; </div>
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       i = j = 0; </div>
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       while (s[i] != '\0') /* find end of s
*/            i++; </div>
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       while ((s[i++] = t[j++]) != '\0') /*
copy t */ </div>
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           ;   
} </div>
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As each
member is copied from t to
s, the postfix ++ is applied to both i and j to make sure that they are in
position for the next pass through the loop. 
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Revison . Write an alternative version of squeeze(s1,s2) that
deletes each character in s1 that matches any character in the string s2.  </div>
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Revison . Write the function any(s1,s2), which returns the first location in a string s1 where any character from the
string s2 occurs, or -1 if s1 contains no characters from s2. </div>
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(The standard library function strpbrk does the same job but returns a
pointer to the location.)  </div>
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Increment and Decrement Operators C provides two unusual operators for incrementing and decrementing variables. The increment operator ++ adds 1 to its...

04:58

Type Conversions

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When
an operator has operands of different types, they are converted to a common
type according to a small number of rules. In general, the only automatic
conversions are those that convert a ``narrower'' operand into a ``wider'' one
without losing information, such as converting an integer into floating point
in an expression like f + i.
Expressions that don't make sense, like using a float as a subscript, are disallowed.
Expressions that might lose information, like assigning a longer integer type
to a shorter, or a floating-point type to an integer, may draw a warning, but
they are not illegal.  </div>
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A
char is just a small integer, so chars may be freely used in arithmetic
expressions. This permits considerable flexibility in certain kinds of
character transformations. One is exemplified by this naive implementation of
the function atoi, which converts a string of digits
into its numeric equivalent.  </div>
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   /* atoi: 
convert s to integer */    int
atoi(char s[]) </div>
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   { </div>
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       int i, n; </div>
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        n = 0; </div>
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       for (i = 0; s[i] >= '0' &&
s[i] <= '9'; ++i)            n = 10 *
n + (s[i] - '0');        return n; </div>
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   } </div>
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As
we discussed in <a href="http://arya2014.blogspot.com/2014/04/introdusingc-tutorial.html">A
Tutorial Introduction</a>,
the expression  </div>
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    s[i] - '0' </div>
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gives the
numeric value of the character stored in s[i], because the values of '0', '1', etc., form a contiguous increasing sequence.  </div>
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Another
example of char to int conversion is the function lower, which maps a single character to
lower case for the ASCII character set.
If the character is not an upper case letter, lower returns it unchanged. 
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   /* lower: 
convert c to lower case; ASCII only */   
int lower(int c) </div>
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   { </div>
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       if (c >= 'A' && c <=
'Z')            return c + 'a' -
'A';        else            return c; </div>
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   } </div>
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This
works for ASCII because corresponding upper case and lower case letters are a
fixed distance apart as numeric values and each alphabet is contiguous -- there
is nothing but letters between A and Z. This latter observation is not true of the EBCDIC
character set, however, so this code would convert more than just letters in
EBCDIC.  </div>
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The
standard header <ctype .h=""></ctype>,
described in Appendix B, defines a family of functions that provide tests and
conversions that are independent of character set. For example, the function tolower is a portable replacement for the
function lower shown above. Similarly, the test  </div>
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   c >= '0' && c <= '9' </div>
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can
be replaced by  </div>
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    isdigit(c) </div>
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We will use
the <ctype .h=""></ctype> functions from now on.  </div>
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There
is one subtle point about the conversion of characters to integers. The
language does not specify whether variables of type char are signed or unsigned quantities.
When a char is converted to an int, can it ever produce a negative
integer? The answer varies from machine to machine, reflecting differences in
architecture. On some machines a char whose leftmost bit is 1 will be converted to a negative
integer (``sign extension''). On others, a char is promoted to an int by adding zeros at the left end,
and thus is always positive.  </div>
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The
definition of C guarantees that any character in the machine's standard
printing character set will never be negative, so these characters will always
be positive quantities in expressions. But arbitrary bit patterns stored in
character variables may appear to be negative on some machines, yet positive on
others. For portability, specify signed or unsigned if noncharacter data is to be stored
in char variables.  </div>
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Relational
expressions like i > j
and logical expressions connected by && and || are defined to have value 1 if true,
and 0 if false. Thus the assignment  </div>
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   d = c >= '0' && c <= '9' </div>
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sets
d to 1 if c is a digit, and 0 if not. However,
functions like isdigit
may return any nonzero value for true. In the test part of if, while, for, etc., ``true'' just means ``non-zero'', so this makes
no difference.  </div>
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Implicit
arithmetic conversions work much as expected. In general, if an operator like + or * that takes two operands (a binary
operator) has operands of different types, the ``lower'' type is promoted to the ``higher'' type before
the operation proceeds. The result is of the integer type. If there are no unsigned operands, however, the following informal
set of rules will suffice:  </div>
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If
either operand is long double,
convert the other to long double.  </div>
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Otherwise,
if either operand is double,
convert the other to double.  Otherwise, if either operand is float, convert the other to float. 
</div>
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<img align="left" height="100" src="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CMYWORK%7E1%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_image002.png" width="13" />Otherwise, convert char and short to int. 
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Then, if
either operand is long,
convert the other to long.  </div>
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Notice
that floats in an expression are not
automatically converted to double; this is a change from the original
definition. In general, mathematical functions like those in <math .h=""></math> will use double precision. The main
reason for using float
is to save storage in large arrays, or, less often, to save time on machines
where double-precision arithmetic is particularly expensive.  </div>
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Conversion
rules are more complicated when unsigned operands are involved. The problem is
that comparisons between signed and unsigned values are machine-dependent,
because they depend on the sizes of the various integer types. For example,
suppose that int is 16 bits and long is 32 bits. Then -1L < 1U, because 1U, which is an unsigned int, is promoted to a signed long. But -1L > 1UL because -1L is promoted to unsigned long and thus appears to be a large
positive number.  </div>
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Conversions
take place across assignments; the value of the right side is converted to the
type of the left, which is the type of the result.  </div>
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A character
is converted to an integer, either by sign extension or not, as described
above.  </div>
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Longer
integers are converted to shorter ones or to chars by dropping the excess high-order
bits. Thus in  </div>
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    int  i;   
char c; </div>
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    i = c;   
c = i; </div>
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the value of c is unchanged. This is true whether or
not sign extension is involved. Reversing the order of assignments might lose
information, however.  </div>
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If
x is float and i is int, then x = i and i = x both cause conversions; float to int causes truncation of any fractional
part. When a double is converted to float, whether the value is rounded or
truncated is implementation dependent.  </div>
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Since
an argument of a function call is an expression, type conversion also takes
place when arguments are passed to functions. In the absence of a function
prototype, char and short become int, and float becomes double. This is why we have declared
function arguments to be int
and double even when the function is called with
char and float. 
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Finally, explicit type conversions can
be forced (``coerced'') in any expression, with a unary operator called a cast. In the construction  </div>
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(type name) expression  </div>
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the
expression is converted to the named
type by the conversion rules above. The precise meaning of a cast is as if the expression were assigned to a variable
of the specified type, which is then used in place of the whole construction.
For example, the library routine sqrt expects a double argument, and will produce nonsense
if inadvertently handled something else. (sqrt is declared in <math .h=""></math>.) So if n is an integer, we can use  </div>
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 </div>
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   sqrt((double) n) </div>
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to
convert the value of n to
double before passing it to sqrt. Note that the cast produces the value of n in the proper type; n itself is not altered. The cast
operator has the same high precedence as other unary operators, as summarized
in the table at the end of this chapter. 
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If
arguments are declared by a function prototype, as the normally should be, the
declaration causes automatic coercion of any arguments when the function is
called. Thus, given a function prototype for sqrt: 
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 </div>
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   double sqrt(double) the call  </div>
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root2 = sqrt(2) coerces
the integer 2 into the double value 2.0 without any need for a cast.  </div>
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The standard
library includes a portable implementation of a pseudo-random number generator
and a function for initializing the seed; the former illustrates a cast:  </div>
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 </div>
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   unsigned long int next = 1; </div>
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   /* rand: 
return pseudo-random integer on 0..32767 */    int rand(void) </div>
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   { </div>
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       next = next * 1103515245 + 12345;        return (unsigned int)(next/65536) %
32768; </div>
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   } </div>
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 </div>
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   /* srand: 
set seed for rand() */    void
srand(unsigned int seed) </div>
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   { </div>
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       next = seed; </div>
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   } </div>
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Revison . Write a function htoi(s), which converts a string of
hexadecimal digits (including an optional 0x or 0X) into its equivalent integer value. The allowable digits are 0 through 9, a through f, and A through F.  </div>
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 </div>
</div>

Type Conversions

When an operator has operands of different types, they are converted to a common type according to a small number of rules. In g...

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